Effect of Consumption on Identity in Britain

Effect of Consumption on Identity in Britain We are what we consume. To what extent does consumption contribute to the construction of identity in contemporary British society? In order to understand the extent to which consumption contributes to the construction of identity in contemporary British society, and thus be in a position to comment on whether or not â€Å"we are what we consume† is a valid statement or simply hyperbole, it is important to first understand the sociological concepts behind the question being asked. â€Å"Consumption† in sociological terms does not simply mean the buying and consuming of goods and services. In particular, sociologists are interested in consumption as a means of conveying meaning. â€Å"Conspicuous consumption† is a term that was originally coined by Thorstein Veblen and it refers to the ways in which people convey the extent of their wealth to others in a society in which the traditional means of conveying meaning have largely disappeared. Veblen argued that in society, a person’s standing was directly related to their wealth. The manner in which this wealth had been accumulated was also important, with old wealth being more highly esteemed then new wealth. The wealthy individual had two ways in which to proclaim their social standing; conspicuous leisure and/or conspicuous consumption.[1] It is important to understand the historical background that has led to the current consumption patterns in contemporary Britain. The industrial revolution was a time of massive social upheavals. Historical bonds of servitude and deference were shattered and millions of people streamed into the UK’s cities. A consequence of this mass upheaval was that wealth creation was no longer tied to the land. Suddenly a person who owned a factory could potentially have the same amount of wealth as someone who considered themselves to be part of the upper classes and whose wealth came with status. Wealth, by itself, was no longer a sufficient means of separating the upper classes from the pretenders. This was especially so in the large towns that had been created in which people were constantly interacting with strangers who were unaware of a person’s social status. As such, conspicuous consumption came to be an increasingly important means of differentiating oneself from others.[2 ] The aspirational dreams unleashed during the industrial revolution meant that, in general terms, people belonging to a lower class could now potentially overcome the wealth divide simply through hard work. Overcoming the class divide was a little more difficult and it was achieved by essentially copying the consumption habits of that class to which a person aspired. Whether consumption drove the industrial revolution or whether the industrial revolution drove consumption may never be answered. The one thing that is certain is that each fuelled the other. The more people consumed the greater the flames of industry. The more exotic and fashionable the items produced, the greater the frenzy of consumption. However, what is clear is that traditional attitudes to work and consumption had to be overcome. Weber gives a interesting example that illustrates this point; â€Å"a man†¦ who at the rate of 1 mark per acre mowed 2.5 acres per day and earned 2.5 marks when the rate was raised to 1.25 marks per acre mowed, not 3 acres, as he might easily have done, thus earning 3.75 marks, but only 2 acres, so that he could still earn the 2.5 marks to which he was accustomed. The opportunity of earning more was less attractive to than that or working less. He did not ask: how much can I earn in a day if I work as much as possible? But: how much must I work in order to earn the wage, 2.5 marks, which I earned before and which takes care of my traditional needs?†[3] In the above example Weber seems to be lampooning this simple person who fails to understand that by working longer hours they can earn more money. In contemporary British society, it almost seems as though leisure time cannot be enjoyed without having first purchased the means of enjoying that time. Thus wide screen televisions, games consoles, international holidays, books, dvds, etc are all things without which people are made to believe they could not enjoy their leisure time. This should be contrasted to the person in Weber’s example who believed that simply being away from work was enough of a reward in itself. One suggested definition of a consumer culture, put forward in order to encompass conspicuous consumption in Third World countries, but also useful as a general starting point, is one, â€Å"in which the majority of consumers avidly desire (and some noticeable portion pursue, acquire, and display) goods and services that are valued for non-utilitarian reasons, such as status seeking, envy provocation, and novelty seeking.†[4] As such, any society in which consumption involves more than simply subsistence living (ie living to survive) will involve to some extent a degree of conspicuous consumption. Likewise, the concept of â€Å"identity† in contemporary sociological terms has developed beyond simply looking at a person’s occupation and class.[5] This move away from employment constituting the main source of a person’s identity splintered sociological thought. Whereas previously a person’s identity fell into several reasonably clear sociological categories and sociological theorists could hypothesis on the â€Å"macro† topics of relations between these groups, the shattering of the nexus between work and identity meant that sociologists now had to turn their attention to areas which had to that point been somewhat overlooked. The study of consumption by sociologists has relatively recent origins. While Marx and Veblen touched on consumption, their focus remained on class and occupational identities. That said, their early work in this area should not be discounted. Marx argued that by separating workers from ownership of the goods they produced and the means of that production, they were essentially being â€Å"estranged from their labour.†[6] As we will see below, this estrangement can lead to disillusionment in employees. However, it should be noted that consumption, being aspirational, actually thrives on feelings of disillusionment. As Weber’s example above illustrates, it is difficult to sell a person who is content an illusion. In their pioneering text on consumption, â€Å"The World of Goods†, Douglas and Isherwood noted with incredulity that, it is extraordinary to discover that no one knows why people want goods.[7] They went on to put forward the argument that â€Å"consumers use goods to construct an intelligible universe and to make and maintain social relationships.†[8] One could perhaps argue that in contemporary British society identity and consumption have become one and the same. As the wealth of society as a whole has increased and family bonds have slowly eroded, people look to advertisements, their peer group and celebrities to assist them in identifying themselves. However, by creating an identity which is outside of themselves and which relies on imported meanings, they run the risk of the identity they present to the world being itself an illusion. When such an illusion is shattered, it can have serious consequences for that person and those around them. Historically, British society has always been extremely class segregated. However, in modern British society, class wars have been to a large extent been replaced by battles of consumption. A particularly good example of this was the recent news that the Labour minister Ruth Kelly had made a decision to send her child to an expensive private school when a suitable state alternative existed. The arguments surrounding her decision clearly illustrate the extent to which choices about consumption can clash with a person’s public identity. The fact that Mrs Kelly is a Labour minister and former Education Secretary means to some people that she should not make decisions about her consumption of services which are contrary to party lines. A clear example of this thinking is set out in Simon Jenkins recent article in the Guardian.[9] He argues that: â€Å"To remove a child from the state school system is rarely an educational choice, whatever euphemism is customarily applied. It is a social statement. Across class-bound Britain, the exclusive school, whether state or private, reinforces the great divide.†[10] Other commentators from within the Labour party went on record to state[11]: I think it goes against the principles of the Labour Party. I am saddened by this and it makes me wonder about the sort of people who achieve high office who are in New Labour† (Birmingham Selly Oak MP Lynne Jones). I think we should expect Labour ministers to put their children through the state system. I deplore others transferring their children out of the system to go private† (Austin Mitchell, MP for Great Grimsby). What underpins these statements is the underlying belief that a person’s true identity is revealed by their consumption decisions. Furthermore, if one believes in a certain cause, not to support that cause through consumption decisions is akin to betray. While the Labour party may no longer be the â€Å"worker’s party†, it is still the party that most fervently advocates the role of public services and those less well off. The difficulty then for Labour ministers is that with their own increasing affluence, they are more likely to want to make consumption decisions which are more akin to the upper middle classes as opposed to their traditional support base. This naturally causes friction and inevitably calls of hypocrisy when the illusion is discovered. It should be noted that conspicuous consumption crosses divides of culture, race, age and religion. An interesting case in point is the Muslim Hijab which some women wear. These have now become â€Å"hot fashion items† for young Muslim women branded with for instance, Calvin Klein, Burberry, L’Oreal and Chanel logos. In this way, a Muslim woman can make the statment that while her religion is Muslim, her identity is Western. Likewise, Fulla dolls have replaced Barbie dolls in many Middle Eastern countries where the doll is a best seller.[12] The fact that Fulla’s popularity is about identity is clear in Mr Abidin’s (the brand manager behind the doll) statement: This isnt just about putting the hijab on a Barbie doll. You have to create a character that parents and children will want to relate to. Our advertising is full of positive messages about Fullas character. Shes honest, loving, and caring, and she respects her father and mother. While one may question what relevance the sale of a doll in the Middle East might have in contemporary Britain, the point is that in a global, inter-dependant marketplace, the West no longer dictates the consumption agenda as it once did. And as new ideas and aspirations emerge, these then filter back into the consumption patterns of British society as people in Britain seek to communicate those aspirations through their consumption. The interesting irony is the way in which a consumer society has managed to incorporate all these conflicting and competing ideas, some which even argue against consumerism, into nice, consumable packages. This is perhaps what is at the heart of the statement â€Å"we are what we consume†; that even if we identify ourselves as being anti-consumer, the only way to communicate that message to others is through consumption itself. Ritzer[13] suggests four changes that have occurred within society as a result of the process of consumption. These changes are first, that people no longer have to go to different shops to obtain the goods they wish to purchase but can instead go to supermarkets or shopping centres which cater for all their needs under one roof. While this does on doubt create a more convenient shopping experience, it also creates a more sterile one as everything is controlled and there is little chance of anything out of the ordinary occurring.[14] Second, many of what he calls the â€Å"cathederals of consumption† such as Disney Land and Las Vegas, have become destinations in their own right. People are just as likely to go there to enjoy the sites for what they are/represent as they are to go there to consume the goods and services offered by them.[15] Third, customers are more likely to do more of the things employees previously did for them, for themselves for no pay. Clear examples of this are the checkouts at supermarkets, with many British supermarkets now having some type of self-checkout service, self-service petrol stations, and cash points.[16] Finally, the process of consumption has altered social interaction to such an extent that a consumer is more likely to interact with the sites as opposed to any other people.[17] In many cases, the people with whom a consumer is interacting during the consumption process are so scripted in their role that interaction on a human level is close to impossible. To a certain extent, those employers are trying to break down the roles that their employees perform to such an extent that they can eventually be replaced by machines. In circumstances such as these, it is hardly surprising that many workers feel disillusioned and seek, in their leisure time, to escape from the monotony of their unfulfilled lives through consumption. In this case, perhaps consumption isn’t conspicuous but rather innocuous. Ratneshwar[18] looks under the illusion created by many of these â€Å"cathedrals of consumption† and in a scathing indictment argues that the â€Å"underlying rationality and sheer manipulativeness of these places are more likely to remain hidden from consumers.† However, people who work in these places quickly become disillusioned and come to see them as places â€Å"largely devoid of meaningful content.† [19] The interesting thing about modern consumption is that a person’s presence is never permanent. At the end of every day, everything is put back the way it was and when the shop/amusement park/cinema reopens the next day it is almost as if the previous day never happened. These places of consumption lack any historical or human dimension. They rely on people to give them meaning and yet, perhaps ironically, they themselves claim to be the givers of meaning. One could perhaps say that they sell back the meaning they have stolen from their customers (no doubt this would be Marx’s view). That said, it would be difficult to argue that a middle class person living in Britain today is worse off, or would willing trade places, with a person living in the middle ages. Even though that person in the middle ages may have had a clear identity about themselves and their position in the world, that certainty constrains them in a way in which a modern person would not be willing to be constrained (although it is arguable that this is slowly changing and that people are becoming more constrained). The fundamental feature in a society of consumption is that we are all complicit in the illusion taking place. As Ruth Kelly has shown, our consumption habits make hypocrites of us all. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bourdieu, P. (1977), Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Belk, R. W. (1988), Third World Consumer Culture, in Goodwin, N. R., Ackerman, F. Kiron, D. (1997), The Consumer Society, Island Press, Washington DC, pp.311-314 Bocock, R. (2001), Consumption, Routledge, London Corrigan, P. (2006), The Sociology of Consumption: An Introduction, Sage Publications, London The Daily Mail, Ruth Kelly named as Labour minister sending a child to private school, 8th January 2007, taken from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=427179in_page_id=1770 Douglas, M. Isherwood, B. (2005), The World of Goods, Routledge, London Goodwin, N. R., Ackerman, F. Kiron, D. (1997), The Consumer Society, Island Press, Washington DC Jenkins, S., Introducing the minister of no faith in communities, in Guardian Unlimited, 10th January 2007, taken from http://www.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,,1986631,00.html The New York Times, Bestseller in Mideast: Barbie With a Prayer Mat, 22nd September 2005, taken from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/22/international/middleeast/22doll.html?ex=1285041600en=72bb8cc089bf9435ei=5090 Ransome, P. (2005), Work, Consumption and Culture: Affluence and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century, Sage Publications, London Ratneshwar, S. Mick, D. G. ed. (2005), Inside Consumption: Perspectives on Consumer Motives, Goals and Desires, Routledge, New York Ritzer, G. (2005), Enchanting a Disenchanted World: Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption, Pine Forge Press Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed. (2003), Handbook of Social Theory, Sage Publications Ltd, London Storey, J. (1999), Cultural Consumption and Everyday Life, Arnold Publishing, London Veblen, T. (1994), The Theory of the Leisure Class, Dover Publications, Ontario Woodward, K. (2003), Social Sciences: The Big Issues, Routledge, London 1 Footnotes [1] Corrigan, P. (2006), p.17 [2] Corrigan, P. (2006), p.17 [3] Weber, M. (1976), pp.59-60 in Corrigan, P. (2006), p.66 [4] Belk, R. W. (1988), p.105 in Goodwin, N. R., Ackerman, F. Kiron, D. (1997), p.312 [5] Ransome, P. (2005), p.96 [6] Bocock, R. (2001), p.37 [7] Douglas, M. Isherwood, B. (2005), p.xxxi [8] Douglas, M. Isherwood, B., in Corrigan, P. (2006), p.17 [9] Jenkins, S. in Guardian Unlimited, 10th January 2007 [10] Jenkins, S. in Guardian Unlimited, 10th January 2007 [11] The Daily Mail, 8th January 2006 [12] The New York Times, 22nd September 2005 [13] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [14] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [15] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [16] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [17] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [18] Ratneshwar, S. Mick, D. G. ed. (2005), p.305 [19] Ratneshwar, S. Mick, D. G. ed. (2005), p.305

Philosophy: Skeptism Essay

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word â€Å"philosophy† comes from the Greek (philosophia), which literally means â€Å"love of wisdom. Skepticism is a philosophical attitude that, in its most extreme form, questions the possibility of obtaining any sort of knowledge. It was first articulated by Pyrrho, who believed that everything could be doubted except appearances. Sextus Empiricus (2nd century AD), skepticism’s most prominent advocate, describes it as an â€Å"ability to place in antithesis, in any manner whatever, appearances and judgments, and thus †¦ to come first of all to a suspension of judgment and then to mental tranquility. † Skepticism so conceived is not merely the use of doubt, but is the use of doubt for a particular end: a calmness of the soul, or ataraxia. Skepticism poses itself as a challenge to dogmatism, whose adherents think they have found the truth. Sextus noted that the reliability of perception may always be questioned, because it is idiosyncratic to the perceiver. The appearance of individual things changes depending on whether they are in a group: for example, the shavings of a goat’s horn are white when taken alone, yet the intact horn is black. A pencil, when viewed lengthwise, looks like a stick; but when examined at the tip, it looks merely like a circle. Skepticism was revived in the early modern period by Michel de Montaigne and Blaise Pascal. Its most extreme exponent, however, was David Hume. Hume argued that there are only two kinds of reasoning: what he called probable and demonstrative (cf. Hume’s fork). Neither of these two forms of reasoning can lead us to a reasonable belief in the continued existence of an external world. Demonstrative reasoning cannot do this, because demonstration (that is, deductive reasoning from well-founded premises) alone cannot establish the uniformity of nature (as captured by scientific laws and principles, for example). Such reason alone cannot establish that the future will resemble the past. We have certain beliefs about the world (that the sun will rise tomorrow, for example), but these beliefs are the product of habit and custom, and do not depend on any sort of logical inferences from what is already given certain. But probable reasoning (inductive reasoning), which aims to take us from the observed to the unobserved, cannot do this either: it also depends on the uniformity of nature, and this supposed uniformity cannot be proved, without circularity, by any appeal to uniformity. The best that either sort of reasoning can accomplish is conditional truth: if certain assumptions are true, then certain conclusions follow. So nothing about the world can be established with certainty. Hume concludes that there is no solution to the skeptical argument—except, in effect, to ignore it. Even if these matters were resolved in every case, we would have in turn to justify our standard of justification, leading to an infinite regress (hence the term regress skepticism). Many philosophers have questioned the value of such skeptical arguments. The question of whether we can achieve knowledge of the external world is based on how high a standard we set for the justification of such knowledge. If our standard is absolute certainty, then we cannot progress beyond the existence of mental sensations. We cannot even deduce the existence of a coherent or continuing â€Å"I† that experiences these sensations, much less the existence of an external world. On the other hand, if our standard is too low, then we admit follies and illusions into our body of knowledge. This argument against absolute skepticism asserts that the practical philosopher must move beyond solipsism, and accept a standard for knowledge that is high but not absolute.

Health Care Provider: Awareness and Diversity of Faiths Essay

Abstract Within the health care system of today, many health care providers are introduced to various religious beliefs and practices through caring for those patients and families from different cultures. In order for competent medical treatment to be performed, the health care providers must take into account the religious beliefs of those in our care to deliver good and effective quality of care. This paper will examine this student’s point of view on Christianity and compare it with Native American Spirituality, Hinduism, and Buddhistic religious views and faiths regarding healing in today’s health care society. Patient’s cultural and spirituality must be incorporated, and considerations addressed as essential key elements to the overall health of the patient. This will provide the best possible outcomes for the patient. An analysis and comparison of Native American Spirituality, Hinduism and Buddhistic religious views on healing and mortality and will be paralleled, explored and discussed against the Christian faith view of the aforementioned within this paper. Introduction Providing health care to those of different spiritual backgrounds, it is essential to recognize the religious practices and beliefs of the patient and their families. It is of utmost importance to determine the specific needs that correspond with their practices and beliefs. Comprehending these beliefs will permit health care providers to set forth a plan that promotes the best possible outcomes for the patient in the end. The United States of America welcomes people of different nationalities and faiths. With such a  diversity of cultures and religions, health care providers are tasked with educating themselves concerning a multitude of faiths and corroborating the information learned with those particular religious beliefs. This allows the patient and families to receive spiritual care as well as the physical care they need. Hospitals nationwide have now recognized the cultural diversity of those that are living in the United States and have implemented a program to the training of its employees in cultural diversity. Christian perspective on restorative health Christian perspective on restorative health is based on the teachings from the Bible. Those who practice this faith believe that no matter the circumstances, God can restore health. While Jesus was alive and walked upon earth, it was proved that He was indeed the Son of God by the ability He had to heal those around Him. He restored health in many different ways. Matthew 14:14 (King James Version), the writer of this first Gospel tells its audience Jesus saw a abundant crowd and He had commiseration the crowd and restored health to the infirmed and debilitated. His touch restored health to the people and healed them (Matthew 9:29-30, King James Version). Through spoken words they were restored to health (Matthew 8:8, King James Version), and He made sound and whole multiple infirmities and afflictions amongst the population (Matthew 9:35, King James Version). People of Christian faiths believe that God can work through gifted individuals for assistance in healing. As declared in the King James Version Bible â€Å"But ye are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, an holy nation, a particular people; that ye should shew forth the praises of him who hath called you out of darkness into his marvelous light† (1 Peter 2:9, King James Version). Prayer is powerful and Christians are taught that healing can occur, but do not know exactly when this may occur. Christians do have strong faith in His power which comforts us in knowing that He has ultimate control. Christian families and the Church prayer and support, the process of healing begins and ends in this context (James 5:16, King James Version). Christians believe in following Gods word by faith and goodwill and generosity will be granted throughout their lives (Psalms 23:1-6, King James Version). Impression on restoration of health This student’s impression on restorative health from illness is one of the foundations of faith about the God of the Bible. Many stories declared in different parts of the Bible narrative restored health required nothing but faith. This student believes in the authority of supplication, individualized, and collectively within the congregate (a collective consciousness) and with supplication, healing has happened. Christianity and Native American Spirituality Compared The majority of Native American’s do believe that the Great Spirit (some Native American’s call this Great Spirit â€Å"Grandfather† and â€Å"Old Man†), which is part of all creation, from the heavens to the ground with all beings put here on earth. Conception is believed to be a blessing from God by Christians. Native American Spirituality believes that a person’s health is brought about through actions and interactions they have with the spirit world and wholeness is derived from the balance between the universe and the spirit world. Sickness derives from the imbalance with the spirit world and is causation of disharmony within the individual (â€Å"Guidelines for Native American Indians,† 2004). Christians have faith that God watches over the individual and prevents sickness from occurring. Native American Spiritual care is important through healing rituals which are performed at ceremonies and attended by family, tribe, along with a medical healer, either man or woman (Robinson, 2008). Christians have faith and pray to God that He heals those affected with sickness and diseases. If hospitalized, those of Native American Spirituality rely upon items which are considered sacred and powered by the Great Spirit which are in possession of the patient around the clock for healing (â€Å"Guidelines for Native American Indians,† 2004). As stated above, a Christians’ faith and belief that prayer is sacred and He answers prayers for good health and healing. When death happens, those of Native American Spirituality have a firm conviction in reincarnation and return in a multitude of forms other than human (â€Å"Guidelines for Native American Indians,† 2004). Whereas, those of Christian faith believes that once a person expires, the soul rises to heaven, but the persons’ body stays on earth. Christianity and Hinduism Compared Oldest of the world known religions is Hinduism. Hinduism is a way of life.  Hindu’s worship multiple deities, but Christians’ only believe in a single God, who created the ethereal and temporal worlds. Hindu’s adorn themselves ornamental clothing that have a specific religious meaning and some Christians wear special trinkets of faith, according to different denominations. Hindu’s are noted to pray three times a day and depending on the denomination, Christians will attend church several times a week to only once a week. Hindu’s believe in reincarnation once death has transpired (Sharma, 2002), while Christians believe upon death, the soul ascends to heaven and the body stays on earth. Christianity and Buddhism Compared There was a man named Buddha, who after many years of witnessing anguish which was related to old age, sickness, and death, fore sake his family. Setting out alone, his intent was to find life’s meaning. Buddhism (Hinduism also shares this belief), believes in karma. Karma is the belief that the force produced from the actions of a person is held to perpetuate transmigration and its ethical consequences determine the nature of the person’s next existence, a continuum of rebirth life cycles. A strong belief in karma exist, where every action has a reaction and that everything happens for a reason (â€Å"Guidelines for Buddhism†, 2003) and a Christians’ faith is that God heals all those who are ill. Christians believe that everyone has one life, one soul, while reincarnation is the belief among the Buddhist. The emphasis of the spiritual well-being of the Buddhist spiritual well-being is the translucence of the mind by prayer along with meditation during sickness. Christians’ depend up His mercy to restore their health after sickness. But if they are not healed, then they are to accept His will. The Buddhist and the Christian believe health restoration is foundationally grounded in spirituality. Supplication and mediation is practiced by both faiths, but those who are of the Buddhist faith perform chanting (Numrich, 2001). As death nears, both have varying kinfolk, pastoral, ministerial and clergyperson’s will be summoned to the bedside. Post obitum, posthumous care is critical to the practicing Buddhist. Practitioners of Buddhism believe the incorporeal part of the individual can take up to three days, per say, to evacuate the body (Numrich, 2001). The Christian believes the nonphysical, incorporeal soul ascends to heaven while the physical, corporal body remains. Summation The similarities between the Native American Spirituality, Hindu, and Buddhist devotions include prayer, family, and clergyman or women utilized during sickness and healing. The major difference between the Christian faith and the latter three is that once life ends the belief in reincarnated is paramount and the individual returns to the known world. Christians believe after death has occurred, the soul, the most sacred part, ascends into heaven where God acts as arbiter and judges the individuals faith and deeds while on physically in the world, but the physical vessel, the body will remain behind in the physical world. The utmost importance for the spiritual health of the patient is to combine their beliefs into the plan of care. This can be accomplished with health care providers allowing the individual and kinfolk to partake in specific rituals, which will support the spiritual well-being of the individual. References Guidelines for health care providers interacting with American Indian patients and their families. (2004). Retrieved from http://www.advocatehealth.com/documents/faith/CG-Native_American.pdf Guidelines for health care providers interacting with patients of the Buddhist religion and their families. (2003). Retrieved from http://www.advocatehealth.com/documents/faith/CGBuddhist.pdf Numrich, P. D. (2001). The buddhist tradition: religious beliefs and healthcare decisions. Retrieved from http://www.advocatehealth.com/documents/faith/Buddhist-Tradition.pdf Robinson, B. A. (2008). Native American Spirituality: beliefs of Native Americans, from the Arctic to the Southwest. Retrieved from http://www.religioustolerance.org/nataspir3.htm Sharma, A. (2002). The Hindu Tradition: religious beliefs and healthcare decisions. Retrieved from http://www.advocatehealth.com/documents/faith/Hindufinal.pdf

Compare and Contrast of the Arguments in Huntingtons The...

Samuel Huntington has made famous his thesis the clash of civilizations, which was developed in his article in Foreign Affairs in 1993 and in the book that followed, in which the author expanded his thesis and reaffirmed the validity of his theory after the success and controversy that followed the publication of his article. In fact, the â€Å"civilizational† approach of conflicts today is now intrinsically linked to a comprehensive theory of international relations, which Samuel Huntington has developed by giving it an important value and a dominant paradigm Reacting to the theory of Fukuyama, Samuel P. Huntington resumed the expression Clash of civilizations in 1993 and speculates that it is mainly cultural and religious identities†¦show more content†¦The current evolution of the world after the Cold War led to the assertion of multiple civilizations; The balance of power among civilizations changes and the relative influence of the Midwest declines, while the non-Western civilizations reaffirm the value of their own culture. Samuel Huntington sees an emerging world organized on the basis of civilizations. Societies that share cultural affinities cooperate with each other and the efforts to force a society into another civilization will fail; countries gather around the leading States of their civilization. This description of the process of new structures of international relations that Huntington sees developing, leads him to consider that the greatest risks of violence and confrontation lie in the Westerns’ claims to universality, which are leading them to increasingly get into conflict with other civilizations, particularly Islam and China; local conflicts, especially between Muslims and non-Muslims, generate new alliances and lead to an escalation of violence, which will usually lead the dominant states to make an attempt to stop them. On the other hand, Edward Said argues that the concept of clash of civilizations is a myth whose purpose is to justify an aggressive attitude in the minds of American and form a base for American and Western aggression against China and the Islamic world and culture. Beyond the paradigmatic character of his